Introduction to Anglo-Saxon
The Anglo-Saxon literature is the oldest literature in the history of English. The period of 450 AD- 1100 AD is known as Anglo-Saxon Period. The period before 450 AD is known as Dark Age, because we have no records of literature of that time. Anglo-Saxon were three Germanic Tribes who came form coasts of Denmark and Germany to the England probably in 449 AD. Gildas, a British writer in 500 AD, described the Roman army's and invasion by ruthless attackers. In contrast, Anglo-Saxon monk Bede's "The Ecclesiastical History of the English People" in 731 AD, portrayed the Anglo-Saxon as instruments of God's vengeance. Bede identified three tribes: Angles, Saxon, and Jutes, from Germany and Denmark, arriving in 449 AD. The term "Anglo-Saxon" comes from a fusion of these tribes, while "English" and "England" abbreviate from Angeln, a district in northern Germany.
Purpose of Migration of Anglo-Saxon
Many of the sources inform about several reasons. I discuss some of them here. Some sources say that the Anglo-Saxon lived near the coasts of Denmark and Germany. Their homelands often flooded due to a rise in sea level. Unable to survive there because of the floods, they came peacefully to find land for farming. Whole families set sail across the sea to live in Britain, bringing tools, weapons, and farm animals with them. They then built villages with new homes in their new settlement. One possible reason could be the Roman Empire's fall, which resulted in huge changes in population. Further, the need for more land to start settlements while participating in farming grew as the population increased. On the other hand, some sources indicate that Saxon soldiers were invited to the area that is now known as England. Their invitation was intended to aid in the defense against Picts and Scots invasions from Scotland and Ireland. These warriors made the decision to settle down in the region rather than going back home thereafter.Seven Kingdoms of Britain
Anglo-Saxon divided Britain into seven kingdoms i.e. Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Kent and East Anglia. Different kings ruled these kingdoms. Their ruling was different from that of today. They fought to get control over the other kingdoms and to protect their own kingdoms.General Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon Period
Anglo-Saxon tribes were fearless, brave and adventurous. They were singers and used to sing about their gods, battles, their heroes. English poetry began in England due to these songs of religion, wars and agriculture. They were great warriors. They kept the British in terror in the reign of Roman Empire.Five Principles of Anglo-Saxon
- Love to personal freedom
- Responsiveness to nature
- Love for Religion
- Love for womanhood
- Struggle for glory Their literature reflects all these principles as they are full of love and emotions.
Anglo-Saxon Language
Their language belongs to the vast Indo-European language family, which also includes the Aryan language. The words for mother and father, God and man, all have the same source in this language as they do in Persian, Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit. The root of modern English is this ancient, dynamic Anglo-Saxon language.Old-English Literature
Most of the Old-English poetry is lost, there are still some fragments left. These fragments were written before they embraced Christianity.Widsith
Widsith, one of the rare extant examples of German epic poetry, was discovered in the Exeter Book, an Old English poetry manuscript assembled in the latter part of the tenth century. Widsith writes about a traveling poet's imaginary visits to continental courts.Waldhere
"A lost Old English poem of thirty-two and thirty-one lines is called Waldere, or "Waldhere." This is the only known Anglo-Saxon account of Walter of Aquitaine's legend. The narrative centers on Waldere and Hildegyth, two thieves from Attila's court who fall in love. Hagena and Guthhere, the king of the Burgundians, are after them in an attempt to find the riches. The two parties' possible clash is hinted at throughout the poem.Complaint of Deor
The Old English poem "Deor" (also known as "The Lament of Deor") may be found in the Exeter Book, a compilation from the late 10th century. The poem is a contemplation on misfortune written by a poet, commonly identified as Deor. The title of the poem has been included by contemporary editors; it is not included in the Exeter Book itself.The Battle of Finnsburg
The Germanic heroic period saw the Battle of Finnsburg, sometimes called Finnsburh, pitting Frisians against a Danish-dominated party, maybe containing a Jutish army.Epic Poem Beowulf
The story of Beowulf takes place in Denmark, in King Hrothgar's mead hall, Heorot, which is a festivity. After consuming Hrothgar's troops, the wicked monster Grendel terrorizes Heorot for a whole twelve years. Arriving with a small group of retainers, Beowulf, a prince of the Geats, promises to rid Heorot of its monster. Grendel attacks Beowulf, gravely wounding him after consuming one of the sleeping Geats. A feast is held in Beowulf's honor the next day. Beowulf uses a sword to slay Grendel's mother after she murders one of Hrothgar's warriors. The story concludes with a fire-breathing dragon destroying Geatland. Beowulf battles it, suffering fatal injuries, and, before passing away, appoints Wiglaf as his successor.Religious Poetry:
Following their conversion to Christianity, the Anglo-Saxons' poetry started to feature religious themes. The majority of Anglo-Saxon poetry is, in fact, religious. Among the most well-known religious poets of the Anglo-Saxon period were Caedmon and Cynewulf.Caedmon
Caedmon sang a sequence of songs that described the complete story of humanity, from creation and fall to redemption and the ultimate judgment, combined with the Scripture History.Cynewulf
The Christ, Cynewulf's most important poem, is a metrical account of the key events of Christ's mission, including his majestic return to judgment.Bede
Because Bede's Death Song appeared in a letter written by Cuthbert after his death, it is often believed that Bede is the author of this five-line lyric. There are versions of this poem in Northumbrian and later.Alfred
It is said that Alfred wrote portions of the metrical prefaces to Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy and Gregory's Pastoral Care, which were translated into Old English. Alfred is also credited with writing 50 metrical hymns. However, it is not clear whether Alfred himself composed the poems, or made them write under his supervision, as a general component of his reforming initiatives.Elegiac Poetry in the Exeter Book
Connected to the heroic narratives within the Exeter Book, there exists a set of concise poems often termed as "elegies" or "wisdom poetry." These poetic pieces, influenced by Boethius, eloquently portray the fluctuating fortunes of life.The Ruin: A Vision of Decay
An example of such an elegy, "The Ruin," depicts the melancholic decay of a once grand city in Roman Britain. As Roman influence dwindled in the 5th century, British cities experienced decline, and this poem captures the sorrow of such deterioration.The Wanderer: Recollections of Loss and Contemplation
In "The Wanderer," an aged individual reflects on a tragic incident from youth – an assault that claimed the lives of close friends and kin. The poem delves into the lasting impact of such loss, questioning the wisdom of impulsive decisions in confronting potentially superior forces in battle.The Seafarer: A Narrative of Exile and Salvation
"The Seafarer" recounts the story of a somber exile at sea, where the only glimmer of hope lies in the anticipation of heavenly joy. This elegy explores themes of isolation and the pursuit of redemption amidst the vastness of the ocean.Wisdom Poems and Contemplations
Several other wisdom poems, including "Wulf and Eadwacer," "The Wife's Lament," and "The Husband's Message," offer contemplations on life's intricacies, personal relationships, and the repercussions of impulsive actions. Alfred the Great contributes to this genre with the "Lays of Boethius," a wisdom poem inspired by neo-platonic philosophy.These elegiac poems from the Exeter Book provide a nuanced insight into the emotional and philosophical landscapes of their era.
Translations of Classical and Latin Poetry
Several Old English poems adapt late classical philosophical texts, including a 10th-century translation of Boethius' "Consolation of Philosophy" in the Cotton manuscript Otho A.vi. The Exeter Book's "The Phoenix" also allegorizes Lactantius' "De ave phoenice."Poetic Renderings from the Latin Bestiary Tradition
Short Old English poems draw inspiration from the Latin bestiary tradition, featuring works like "The Panther," "The Whale," and "The Partridge."Riddles in Anglo-Saxon Tradition
The Exeter Book showcases Old English riddles, both comical and obscene, as part of a broader Anglo-Saxon riddling tradition. Estimations of riddle count range from around 94 to close to 100, and while a single scribe likely compiled the Exeter Book, the original compositions may have come from multiple poets.Runic Riddles: A Unique Discovery
On the Franks Casket, an Old English riddle in runic script suggests the answer 'whale,' linking to the material of the casket crafted from whale-bone.Key Features of Anglo-Saxon literature, particularly in the context of poetry
Blank Verse:
- Definition: Blank verse refers to unrhymed lines of poetry, and it was a common form used by the Anglo-Saxons.
- Importance: The absence of end rhyme allowed for a more natural flow in the recitation of long poems and epics.
Caesura:
- Definition: Caesura is a pause or break in the middle of a line of poetry.
- Importance: Caesura was a practical device that helped the scop (poet) in reciting lengthy poems, allowing for breath and emphasis at strategic points.
Moral Purpose:
- Motive: Anglo-Saxon literature often served a didactic purpose, aiming to impart moral lessons and inspire virtues among the audience.
Kennings:
- Definition: Kennings are metaphors expressed in compound terms, often using figurative language to describe something indirectly.
- Examples: "whale road" for the sea, or "storm of spears" for battle.
- Importance: Kennings added richness and poetic flair to the language, enhancing the imagery and depth of expression in Old English poetry.
Alliteration:
- Definition: Alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in nearby words.
- Importance: Alliteration was a common poetic device in Anglo-Saxon literature, contributing to the rhythmic and musical quality of the verse.
The combination of these elements helped shape the distinctive style of Anglo-Saxon poetry, as seen in notable works like "Beowulf" and "The Wanderer." The literature of this period not only entertained but also served as a means of cultural preservation and moral instruction for the community.
The Fall of Anglo-Saxons
The time of the Anglo-Saxons ended in 1066 AD when the Normans took over. The final Saxon king, Harold, lost to William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings. Harold's loss was a crucial event that made William the new king of England. This changed not only who was in charge but also brought in Norman ways that influenced how England was run, socially, and culturally.
References:
- "The Possible Reasons For Anglo Saxons To Migrate To Britain." Edubirdie, 29 Sept. 2021, edubirdie.com. Accessed 3 Feb. 2024.
- “Old English Literature.” Wikipedia, 3 Feb. 2024, wikipedia.org.
- NKM Board of Professors. A Critical History of English Literature. New Kitab Mahal Publishers, 2018-19.
- "Characteristics of the Anglo Saxons Period in History of English Literature." Elizabethan England Life, https://elizabethanenglandlife.com/anglo-saxons/definition-of-anglo-saxon-literature-and-characteristics.html, Accessed 3 Feb. 2024.